Postnatal Depression In Asian Women Health And Social Care Essay

Postnatal Depression In Asian Women Health And Social Care Essay Postnatal Depression affects around 10-15% of mothers having their first baby. Depression during this time is seen as putting the mother at risk for the onset of a serious chronic mood disorder. Studies have indicated that women who do suffer from postnatal depression have a history of depression and psychosocial difficulties (Oates, 2004). Overall South Asians in Britain make up a total of 4% of the ethnic minority population living in the United Kingdom and 50% of the ethnic minority population (ONS 2004). Thus tackling the mental health needs of different cultures is a major public health concern for both commissioning and provider services. Overall research indicates the rates of suicide amongst South Asian women are higher than any other ethnic group (Bhugra, Desai Baldwin,1999). Furthermore this rate is said to double for those women under the age of 30 (Bhugra, Desai Baldwin 1999). Oates (2004) states that these factors are further exacerbated during the postnatal period. Th us the need to understand the causes and origins of depression amongst this cultural group is essential in order for health visitors to provide effective assessments and appropriate interventions. However research looking at prevalence rates of Depression show little evidence of this illness amongst South Asians. For example this conclusion has arisen when looking at hospital admission rates. Cochrane (1977) found there to be lower admission rates for Pakistani Females and Males. This was further made evident in a follow up study conducted between 1971 -1981, which found that Pakistanis had low admission rates for all types of illness and disorders (Cochrane et al, 1989). Similar findings have been found in G.P admission rates. Gillam et al (1989) provided more generalised findings in which he found that Asian women in general have low consultation rates for depression and various other mental disorders compared to white women. Thus it would be valid to conclude at this point that hospital admission rates suggest that Asians do not suffer from depression. However Nazroo (1997) disagrees with these findings. He points out that the instruments which are used in the study fail to accurately assess the prevalence of mental illness within Asians. Similarly Brewin (1980) found that there was no apparent difference in G.P consultation rates for Depression between Asian women and White women living in oxford. He also stated that the figures which have indicated low consultation and admission rates, do not reflect low rates of psychiatric treatments. One could therefore suggest that there are flaws in considering admission rates and identifying mental illness amongst South Asians. The consideration of prevalence rates is not the focus of the present review, however the possible causes of low admission rates amongst South Asians shall be considered throughout the review in relation to the research findings. 2.1 Role of the Health Visitor in assessing Postnatal Depression The National Midwifery Council (2007) highlights Specialist Community Public Health Practitioner Nurses to be equipped with the skills and training to identify and assess mental health needs of mothers during the postnatal period. Furthermore, the National Institute of Clinical Excellence (2007) highlights the importance of health professionals identifying mental illness during the postnatal period and state: at a womens first contact with primary care health care professionals (including midwives, obstetricians, health visitors and GPS) should ask two questions to identify possible depression: During the past month, have you been bothered by feeling down , depressed or hopeless? During the past month have you often be bothered by having little interest or pleasure in doing things? A third question should be considered if a women answered yes to both clinical questions, such as is this something that you would want help with . Thus it is evident that identifying and assessing postnatal depression is pertinent to the role of the health visitor as they are in the frontline in providing early intervention and prevention. However, assessment of Postnatal Depression is challenging when faced with different cultural groups where behavioural, social, and cultural practices differ making assessment and treatments difficult. Aim The purpose of the present literature review is to examine the evidence regarding the causes of Postnatal Depression amongst South Asian Women. Thus through collecting and reviewing the research evidence is it proposed it will further expand our knowledge and understanding of Postnatal Depression amongst South Asian women. Furthermore, the review aims to make some recommendations for practice and identify some key areas in which the health visiting practice can further develop and propose various interventions which may be effective in addressing Postnatal depression amongst South Asian women. 4 RESULTS OF THE LITERATURE REVIEW Overall the final results included a total of 11 studies (refer to appendix) . The results indicated there to be a limit in the research on Postnatal Depression amongst South Asian Women. A total of two studies were identified within the search which had specifically looked at the origins of Postnatal Depression amongst South Asian Women . Furthermore these studies were conducted in Goa India, therefore there was question the generalisability of these findings being applied to population living in Britain. Thus it was decided to incorporate studies looking at Depression amongst South Asian women as it would contribute to understanding the origins of mental illness within this community. A number of categories emerged from the studies . These categories were further combined into a further sub categoroes (refer to figure )? categories. As a result the diagram shown (refer to Figure 1, p ) represents how the data was organised and the categories that emerged. The origins of Depression within South Asian Women Assessment of Depression within South Asian Women Diagram to show the how findings were analysed ORIGINS OF POSTNATAL DEPRESSION IN SOUTH ASIAN WOMEN a) Research Question: CULTURAL VUNERABILITIESb) Core Theme: c) Higher Order: ASSESSMENT CULTURAL EXPECTATIONS d) Lower order: Extended Family Living Cultural Expression of Depression Gender of the Newborn Stigmatisation 5 Chapter 1: THE ORIGINS OF POSTNATAL DEPRESSION IN SOUTH ASIAN WOMEN This chapter will examine the evidence available regarding the causes or origins of depression in South Asian women. Overall the results have indicated that that the causes or origins of depression are, due to the what the researcher describes as Cultural Vulnerabilities which mean that they are a result of being exposed to an environment of which depression is a unavoidable response. The results are presented the following format, description of each theme along with the supporting evidence. 5.1.1 The theme of Cultural Expectations: The theme of cultural expectations refers to those expectations formulated by the culture. Such expectations include conforming to cultural traditions. For instance living with the extended family aswell as pressures and expectations to have a male child. Living with the extended family largely refers to living with the mother and father inlaw, husbands brothers and sisters, which can lead to feeling oppressed with a number of family expectations. For example of the 11 articles reviewed the issue of extended family living occurred a total ? times within the studies as a cause of depression for South Asian Women. Shah-Sonuga-barke (2000) conducted a study looking at the relationship between the family structure and maternal mental health of two generations of Muslim and Hindu Women along with the influence this had on childrens behavioural problems. A total of 44 Muslim families and 42 Hindu families agreed to take part in the study. The mental health of the women was monitored using a Hospital Anxiety Depression Scale which is 14 item self report questionnaires. The results indicated that of 46% of the mothers and 40 % of the grandmothers scored above the scale for anxiety. Furthermore 29% of the mothers and 44 % of the grandmothers scored above the cut off point for depression, thus indicating that the majority of the randomly selected sample suffered from significant mental health issues. The findings indicated that grandmothers and children benefited from living in the extended family environment however it had detrimental effects on the maternal mothers mental health status. Thus suggesting that the traditional extended family, amongst immigrant communities is not always of benefit to its members and in may in some circumstances contribute to the risk in mental health. Similarly Hicks and Bhugra (2003) conducted a focus group study investigating the possible causes of suicide within South Asian women. A total of 180 South Asian women formed part of the convenience sample from 9 G.P practices and 24 South Asian community organisations in London area. The study was conducted in two parts the subjects were sent questionnaires focussing on the perceived causes of suicide and the findings from these results were formed the focus of discussion within the focus groups. The findings indicated that 90% stated a unhappy family situation to be causal factors. Thus further highlighting the family to be central in experiencing mental illness for South Asian Women. The possible explanation for these results is that grandmothers that may have grown up in their country of origin where such traditions may have been easier to conform to as there is no exposure to the western world. Thus in some cases failure to understand this concept they may project the same values to a generations that is growing up and being exposed to different cultures. In contrast to this study, previous research which has looked at the benefits of extended family living have shown extended families to be a protective factor in alleviating depression in women. For example, Birchwood et al (1992) elaborates on how extended family living reduces the likelihood of suffering with depression and suggested that the support and practical advice offered in an extended family can moderate the risks associated with the development of mental illness. Furthermore, on, Stainbrook (1954) suggested that the family structure plays a role in mediation of depression western cultures might be responsible for low levels of depression within South Asian Community . For example he stated that the frustrations and the problems which may be faced with in early life, for example marriage and new born are cushioned by the provision of many family members, who play a part in parenting within the extended family. Tseng and Hsu (1969) identified how the extended family setting brings about low levels of depression. They conducted some research on Twianese family and found that living within the extended family creates a feeling of togetherness and stability and there is a feeling of belonging. Similarly Violtles et al (1967) stated that the role of the family is important in the sharing of loss, it reduces a sense of isolation which can result in depression. It is acknowledged from the studies above that they were conducted on different cultural groups thus explaining the contrast in findings. However the implications of this in relation to health visiting practice and assessment of PND in South Asian women is that the perception of living with the extended family can be perceived as being positive it may be observed that these women living in a extended family setting are in a supportive environment however it is this environment which can initiate depression for South Asian women. Furthermore previous research that has highlighted the benefits of the extended have been conducted in 50s, 60s and 70s which poses question on the historical validity of these findings to the present day. The question of whether the findings are applicable to todays population are brought to light. Further on, the research has been conducted on specific cultures therefore is not applicable to all cultural groups, and further highlights the complexity of identifying causal factors. The limitations of the two studies are that they both used a small random sample thus posing questions on the generalisability of the findings. Furthermore the Hicks and Bhugra (2003) recruited only a English speaking sample thus the results are representative of those who are educated only , however recruiting from a sample that spoke little English would have increased the validity of the findings. However the validity of the study is increased as it is conducted in two parts using both a qualitative and quantitative approach thus increasing the validity of the findings. In contrast Hussan and Cochrane (2002) conducted a qualitative study using the grounded theory approach to explore the perception and causes of depression in South Asian Women. The researchers interviewed 10 women in Punjabi, Urdu and English who were suffering from depression, along with their carers who were also interviewed about the causes of depression . The results of the study indicated that conflicting cultural expectations were initiators of depression. The women stated that moving from their country of origin had fragmented the family set up therefore there was a sense of loss and lack of support from the extended family. They stressed that the extended family provided them with support when carrying out daily activities however moving to England there was too many expectations placed upon the women to fulfil the role of the mother, and wife and carrying out all the duties to maintain the respect of the family. This finding contrasts to previous findings which highlight the extended families to be contributory in initiating depression for women. A possible explanation for these results are that migrating from their country of origin involves the individuals leaving behind their homes and their culture. It is a period of adjustment into a new environment which can inturn lead to experiencing a sense of loss and isolation. In some cases this sense of loss can be like a mourning process which can take place at least until the new culture begins to replace some of the old ties. These feelings of loss are expected to be a normal process but if a women for example emigrates from her country of origin and fails to find a substitute for what she has left behind then it interfers with the adaption process. Thus these feelings of loss can inturn result in psychological and distress and illness. Therefore the role of the extended family in this case is protective. 5.1.3. Gender of the new born The gender of the new born has been highlighted to further initiate Depression for South women. Overall the studies indicated that there was a general preference for a male child. Being a female was considered to be a burden on the family. Thus the expectation to produce a male child places a huge expectation on the mother adding to her pressure to conform to these cultural expectations. Jambunathan (1992) studied 30 women in Madhuri India and examined social cultural factors in the development of depression. The interviews revealed that females were believed to be a curse on the family. For example one of the participants within the study stated that: instead of being born a girl it is better to be born a free sparrow or a crowor one should die (p264) . The participants within the study believed that females produced a burden on the family in relation to their marriage prospects aswell as financial stress in giving of dowries. The male was preferred as it was believed they would sup port them in old age and more importantly carry on the family name (Jambunathan 1992). Furthermore, Patel et al (2002) examined the cultural specific factors such as the gender of the infant and the association with Postnatal Depression. Indian women were recruited who were mostly Hindu in origin (89%) from Goa India who participated within the study. The results of the study indicated that at 6-8 weeks 23 % of the women had postnatal depression. At 6 months a total of 22 % of the women were depressed. 14 % of the women were considered to be chronically depressed. The results indicated that gender of the newborn was significantly associated with the development of postnatal depression. The results also highlighted marital violence to be significantly higher if the infant was a girl but lower if the infant was a boy. The results suggested overall there is a preference for a male infant within this cultural group. The data was collated over a period of 6 months using two different measures. Firstly the General Health Questionniare was employed and the EPDS was used postp artum. The problem with using the two different scales were that they may both measure different aspects of depression this is not made clear within the study. Furthermore the Konki version of the scale was utilized. The validity of the scale was investigated using a two stage pilot study thus there was no confirmation this was only a pilot study. The sample was located from a hospital setting therefore it puts question on the reliability of these findings to be generalised to the population of Goa, even though thes study concludes it to be representative of the population in Goa. Roderugues et al (2003) conducted a study which looked at the attitudes and perceptions of mothers towards childbirth. The results indicated that the poor relationships with the mother-inlaw, and husbands caused a great deal of distress for the women within the study. Furthermore the women in the study further claimed that the birth of a daughter further caused problems within their relationships with the family and the In-laws. Furthermore the gender of the infant was recognised by the fathers as being a possible cause of nerves for their wives. These findings further suggest that the cultural factors initiate depression. This study adds further strength to the previous study as the study incorporates the fathers and their perceptions. Furthermore the results are compared with depressed and non depressed women , increasing the generalisability of the findings to the general population. In contrast to these findings Goyal et al (2005) investigated whether such cultural factors such as the gender of the infant and arranged marriages are associated with the development of Postnatal. This was a quantitative study which involved administering the PPDS a Postpartum Depression scale to 58 self selected immigrant Asian Indian women between 2 weeks and 12 months postpartum livin in the USA. The researchers attached additional 14 questions including the age ethnicity and education , occupation, marital status and whether it was arranged and the years living in the U.S. Furthermore medical information regarding the pregnancy, type and the gender of the newborn was recorded aswell as the gender of the previous children. 69 % of the women reported in having an arranged marriage. Women were well educated with at least 50% having a masters degree 43% were described as house makers. A total of 59 % gave birth to a male infant and 41% gave birth to a female infant. Previous history of depression was reported in 7% of the women. The results indicated that 24% screened positively for symptoms of depression and the results indicated that there was no statistically significant difference in the level of depression of those women that had an arranged marriage compared to those who had not had an arranged marriage. Furthermore there was no statistical significance in relation to the gender of the newborn and depression. A possible explanation for the difference in these results are that three of the studies which have indicated gender of the offspring to be a initiator of depression were conducted in the participants country of origin, where such cultural traditions and beliefs maybe more prevalent. Whereas Goyal et als (1998) study was conducted on a sample of women who were educated and living in an environment where they were exposed to western beliefs and traditions thus such cultural beliefs were perhaps difficult for the participant to hold. In relation to the practice implications of these studies suggest that if gender of the newborn is a factor then the antenatal visits perhaps should question whether there is a preference for male child and whether there are any expectations and pressures placed upon them by the extended family. 6 Chapter 2 Assessment of Postnatal Depression in South Asian Women This chapter will examine the evidence available regarding the assessment of depression in South Asian women. Overall there is possible reasons as to why depression is difficult to assess these being the stigma surrounding the illness , the communication of distress, and the tools employed to assess depression in south asian women to be factors which can make assessment of cultural factors which have been discussed in the previous chapter difficult to detect. The results are presented the following format, description of each theme along with the supporting evidence. 5.1.1 Communication of Distress Words that represent emotional status in many European languages have been found not exist within the South Asian culture. Wilson and McCarthy (1994) found that South Asians living in the UK express their depression somatically. The study screened a total of ? patients in G.P practices It was found that Asian patients reported having a physical problem alone rather that a mental problem compared to White patients. Thus this may lead to the indigenous population being correctly diagnosed as having depression that the Asian population. Similarly Odell et al (1997) suggested that Asian patients tended to focus much more on the physical symptoms, thus it therefore made it difficult for G.Ps to detect depression. Thus suggesting that if the G.P is unable to detect depression accurately in Asian women they are less likely to visit their G.P. This suggests a possible reason for low consultation rates between Asian patients and Health professionals. Rack (1979) found that in the Asian Cultur e there is no acknowledgement for the word of depression being a mental illness. It was found that in the Asian culture Asians perceived illness as being judged by the degree of social dysfunction. Therefore if a women failed in her social roles then her illness would become apparent. On the other hand if a women expresses internal distress it is not recognised. Karaz (2005) compared depressive symptoms within two cultural groups. 36 South Asian immigrants and 37 European Americans were presented with vignette describing symptoms of depression along with a semi structured interview. The results indicated there were significant differences in the representation of depression. It was identified that depression for South Asian Women was measured through a breakdown of relationships within the family; in particular reference was made to their relationship with the extended family and husbands. In contrast European Americans characterised depression in relation to their biology and hormonal imbalances. This suggests that even if the symptoms of depression are prevalent . the recognition, and understanding and treatment of the illness is different across cultures. Gausia et al (2009) investigated the prevalence of PND amongst South Asian Women within the sub district of Bangladesh. A total of 346 women were followed from late pregnancy to early postpartum period. The risk factors identified were formulated using a questionnaire and women were followed up and administered the EPDS scale which was validated using the BANGLA version . they identified that PND could be predicted by a number of variables these being depression in pregnancy , prenatal death, poor relationship with mother in-law or husband mother or wife. It is evident from the literature that there are clear differences in the way in which depression is expressed within cultures. In order to diagnose the symptoms it is essential to have an understanding of the language, culture beliefs and values as it appears that these values play a part in the attitude of the sufferer. Therefore due to this in-depth knowledge of the persons culture there is question on the western diagnostic tools when interpreting illness, it is questionable whether these western diagnostic tools can be used with non western populations? Research has indicated that there are a number of problems of interpreting depression in different cultural groups, they have all concluded that there is a need to be more culturally aware and to consider social, cultural and economic aspects of a persons life as well as their attitudes and beliefs. Furthermore it highlights why depression rates are reported to be low in this community it is because of these cultural specific fac tors that rates of depression within this community may be lower or higher than originally assumed. Communication of distress Words that represent various emotions have been found not to be present within the some languages. Another possible reason for depression within the South Asian women is the issue of stigma Attached to illness within the Asian community. The illness of the mind is perceived as being madness within the culture and believed to be incurable. Therefore those suffering from the illness will not come forward for treatment. Furthermore those suffering from depression before marriage, their chances of getting married were reduced as the community was aware of this. I f the women however married and their depression arises there is pressure placed on the husband to remarry (Cochrane and Hussain 2002). Similalry Karaz (2005) further highlighted the stigma associated with the illness as South Asian women would refer to depression as being pagal or crazy which inturn affects her status within the family. These studies suggest depression is part of the living experience for these women for exampl e migrating to a new country or family. Thus it appears that asian women have internalised these beliefs , it then acts as barrier to them seeking any treatment or making their illness known. For this reason depression is likely to be high amongst this group . For example the role of the family again was a key instigator and asell a)s expectations placed upon the female to fufill the duties of a mother, wife and daughter -inlaw. Further areas identified to initate depression for women were migration from their country of origin Thus it is evident at this point there is a issue of personal space when living in this environment. The women may feel their personal space is expected to be shared amongst this environment. Thus in moving away from such traditions she is forced into their way of living thus creating a conflict between the generations and cultures. 6 Assessment of Postnatal Depression in South Asian Women Problems of measurement of depression across cultures: It is evident from the literature that there are clear differences in the way in which depression is expressed within cultures. In order to diagnose the symptoms it is essential to have an understanding of the language, culture beliefs and values as it appears that these values play a part in the attitude of the sufferer. Therefore due to this in-depth knowledge of the persons culture, it is questionable whether these western diagnostic tools can be used with non western populations? Research has indicated that there are a number of problems of interpreting depression in different cultural groups, they have all concluded that there is a need to be more culturally aware and to consider social, cultural and economic aspects of a persons life as well as their attitudes and beliefs. Furthermore it highlights why depression rates are reported to be low in this community it is because of these cultural specific factors that rates of depression within this community may be lower or higher t han originally assumed. This Chapter will focuss on the the validity of such tools such as the EPDS in indentifying Depression amongst South Asian Women.

Innovation Life Cycle Model for SAP

Innovation Life Cycle Model for SAP Introduction As an answer to global competition, companies have increased the preface of technologically sophisticated products as well as adopted advanced technologies and modifications in organisational structure and processes. For many firms, the development of new products and services is the crucial point of their business strategy and a decisive factor for competitive strength and survival (Stumpfe n.d.).. A firms competitive position is determined by their ability to innovate products and the time required to bring new products to the market. Firms have to launch new sophisticated products in increasingly fast cycles and their ability to ramp up to full scale production volume rapidly is crucial for success (Pisano 1997). A couple of years ago, such technologies called business intelligence (i.e., software solutions used on handling tons of information) were available only to the worlds biggest firms. However, as the cost of computing and storage has dropped and the systems have been enhanced and cost effective, the technology has moved into the majority. Firms are pulling together more information than ever before. In the past, they were stored in different systems that were unable to communicate to each other, such as finance, human resources, or customer management, but just recently, systems are being connected and companies are employing data-mining techniques to get a complete picture of their operations that let firms to manage more efficiently, analyze trends, and develop their forecasting (The Economist Newspaper Limited 2010). Innovation Lifecycle Model This lifecycle model can be understood as a three-stage model of technological development associated with a particular product technology (Williamson 1975). In the explorative stage many diverse models or designs are created, in the development stage products develop into standardized into a dominant design, and in the mature stage only small changes happens inside the dominant design (Frenken, Silverberg and Valente 2008). Although the product lifecycle model is widely accepted and often applied in empirical research, innovation scholars have failed to develop systematic theoretical models that explain the different stages of technological development along the lifecycle (same as Frenken, Silverberg and Valente 2008). In this study, an attempt is made to contribute to innovation lifecycle theory by using the SAP Database system and analyze its pattern. Dependent on the stage in product and process life cycle and on competitive strategy there can exist a complementary or a competiti ve relationship between the implementation of product and process innovations. The product-process life cycle theory of Utterback and Abernathy (Utterback, Abernathy 1975) provides a useful model helping to understand the pattern of industrial innovation processes. This model succeeds in encompassing the mutual relationships between the stages of SAPs product life cycle, the related production process` stages of development and competitive strategy elements (Stumpfe n.d.). SAP History During the 1970s,five former IBM employees made a decision to start their own company, when IBM rejected their recommendation to develop software designed to be used by several users simultaneously(Neumann and Srinivasan 2009). They launched their private corporation in 1972. It was named SAP (Systemanalyse and Programmentwickung-Systems Analysis and Program Development) (same as Neumann and Srinivasan 2009).The name was coined after the plan on which they have been developing at IBM.The company had its headquarters in Weinheim, and its main office in Mannheim Germany (Neumann and Srinivasan 2009). Characteristic Fluid Pattern Transitional Phase Specific Phase Competitive emphasis placed on.. Solution strategy for market entry. Innovation stimulated by Market requirements for advanced solutions application Predominant type of innovation Data processing system. Product Line Financial accounting software suite Production Processes Focused on running financial accounting software through mainframe. During this Phase of the life cycle, technical energy is expended, using materials and technologies generally available in the marketplace (Henderson and Clark, 1990).Within a year of being established, SAP had already completed its first solution for financial accounting. This single management system, designed as a real-time book-keeping and transaction processing program, tied ICIs (Imperial Chemical Industries; first SAP customer) information databases together (same as Neumann and Srinivasan 2009).It became known as â€Å"R1†, meaning that the data was processed immediately after being entered or real-time (Payne, Roets and Schlanderer 2009). It is important to note that during this early phase in the computer industry , business data had to be entered manually at the entry terminal and saved and stored, which basically means Batch processing. Inevitably the introduction of Innovation by SAP which is the real-time processing become very much popular and at that time was a genuine milestone (same as Neumann and Srinivasan 2009). At first SAP only uses the English Language for its first customer ICI,however it has obtained valuable insights from the latter on the business management side of international operations, as a result in 1975 SAP became multilingual (Lofthouse 2000). In the 1980s SAP experienced rapid growth and benefited from major improvements in the software industry (same as Neumann and Srinivasan 2009).Entering the market at that time were Computers with enhanced price-to-performance ratios which helped SAP to expand its customer base (Lofthouse 2000). During also this time the basic shape of a client-server architecture was developed (SAP Global n.d.).SAP continuously enhanced its already distributed program modules and has released the SAP R/2 system, with this the firm claimed market leadership for large companies and was ready to enter the international software market (same as Neumann and Srinivasan 2009). Characteristic Fluid Pattern Transitional Phase Specific Phase Competitive emphasis placed on.. Solution strategy for market entry. Product variation (SAP R/2) Innovation stimulated by Market requirements for advanced solutions application Increased demand by Multinational/Global Market . Predominant type of innovation Data processing system. Process innovation by system that can handle different languages and currencies. Product Line Financial accounting software suite SAP R2 Production Processes Focused on running financial accounting software through mainframe. Banking on systems stability and reliability has improved SAP R2 The Development of the Database Market A market consolidation has taken place since the mid-1990s, initiated in 1994 with the takeover of ASK/Ingres by computer associates, and reaching its highpoint so far in the middle of 2001 with the takeover of Informix by IBM (SAP Global n.d.). During the mid 90s, SAP ushered in a new generation of enterprise software, from the previous mainframe computing to a combination of uniform appearance of graphical interfaces which is called the SAP R/3 (same as Neumann and Srinivasan 2009). With this release, SAP tapped a whole new market among small and medium-sized enterprises due to relatively low cost and effective business process. Adapting to the Times SAP have realized that the internet is a very powerful force, that if utilized properly will result in more generation of income, with this recognition and incremental improvement on the R/3 system- which is named R/3 version 3.0 (same as Neumann and Srinivasan 2009) provided the first completely Internet-enabled business application package, which also increased its viability by making it more user-friendly (same as Neumann and Srinivasan 2009).They have also created the mySAP.com strategy, which represented a complete restructuring of the product portfolio and the beginning of a new direction for the company (same as Payne,Roets and Schlanderer 2009).Using this latest web technology, mySAP.com combined e-commerce solutions with the existing Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) applications, it also enabled SAP to offer an integrated business platform that has the combination of both front-end and Backoffice processes (same as Neumann and Srinivasan 2009). SAP was the first software c ompany to practise the double approach of giving standard software that could easily be implemented and managed on the one hand, while at the same time watching for and integrating key global business trends into their software (same as Neumann and Srinivasan 2009). Open Source Instead of Marketing Despite the increasing breadth of functions of the SAP DB database system, SAP AG does not intend to market the database system commercially, and to enter the DBMS market as a new competitor. Consequently, SAP DB is offered license-free in connection with SAP solutions. The users of mySAP.com applications must simply pay a support and maintenance fee that is determined as a fixed percentage of an accrued license price (Anon n.d.). An advantage of using SAP as an ERP system is that SAP has a very high level of incorporation among its individual applications which ensures uniformity of information throughout the structure and the business itself (Kumar n.d.). To support processes well, we need to have information systems and integrated information system support processes in an organization (Scheer 1998). In a standard SAP project system, it is separated into three environments, Development, Quality Assurance and Production (Kumar n.d.). The development system is where most of the execution work takes place. All the final testing is conducted before moving the transports to the production environment which is where the quality assurance system kicks in. On the production system environment all daily business transactions happen, to all companies, the production system should only include transports that have passed all the tests (same as Kumar n.d.) SAP is a table drive customisation software. It provides businesses to make fast changes in their enterprise needs with a uniform set of programs. User-exits are provided for business to add in additional source code. Tools such as screen variants are provided to let the user set field attributes whether to hide, display, or make them fixed fields (Kumar n.d.). This is what makes ERP system and SAP in particular so flexible. The table-driven customisation is driving the program functionality instead of those old-fashioned hard-coded programs. With this, new and modified business requirements can be quickly employed and tested in the system. Many other business application software have seen this table-driven customisation advantage and are now changing their application software based on this table customizing concept (Kumar n.d.). The standard programs and tables should not be changed as far as possible in order to minimise the upgrading costs (same as Kumar n.d.). The main purpose of using standard business application software like SAP is to decrease the amount of time and money spent on improving and testing all the programs. Hence, most companies will try to make use of the existing tools provided by SAP(same as Kumar n.d.). Characteristic Fluid Pattern Transitional Phase Specific Phase Competitive emphasis placed on.. Solution strategy for market entry. Product variation (SAP R/2) Never ending quality improvement. Planned quality along the entire product lifecycle and effort for Independence motivate development of own database, as well as simpler database system. Innovation stimulated by Market requirements for advanced solutions application Increased demand by Multinational/Global Market. Global Organization, plans on development in multiple international locations. Predominant type of innovation Data processing system. Process innovation by a system that can handle different languages and currencies. Creation of software applications for customers who primarily works on end to end business processes. Product Line Financial accounting software suite SAP R2 SAP R3, SAP Net weaver, mySAP.com Production Processes Focused on running financial accounting software through mainframe. Banking on systems stability and reliability has improved SAP R2 Linking e-commerce solutions to existing ERP applications, using state-of-the-art Web technology. Modern Architecture for High Performance and Availability Due to its modern architecture, SAP DB provides a high level of performance, scalability and robustness. In this way, the database can fulfil the performance demands of application environments with thousands of concurrent active users and very large data volumes. At the centre, multi-thread /multi-server architecture ensures a high degree of scalability with sparing handling of server resources. SAP DB fits flexibly into modern architectures such as multi-processor systems or cluster configurations, and uses the advantages for example, where high availability is concerned, without costly configuration. Due to the customisable architecture, SAP DB is suitable as a central database system both for three-tier and two-tier client-server environments (SAP DB n.d.). Effective locking mechanisms, efficient caching of data, intelligent optimisation of SQL applications, extensive parallel processing of read and write processes, and strategies to minimise the required write operations are among the architecture characteristics that significantly affect response times and throughput (SAP DB n.d.). SAP DB is designed for interruption-free round-the clock operation. Required maintenance tasks, such as configuration customization, the extension of data or log areas, data back-up, creation of table indexes and so on, can be performed during production operation without affecting the active users (SAP DB n.d). High Level of Automation for Unattended Operation As well as performance and robustness of SAPs Database Management system (DBMS), the main focus of the further development of SAP DB is on simpler operation of the database system (SAP DB n.d.). The vision of a database system that automatically manages itself to a large degree, and only requires minimal monitoring by the database administrator, is the guideline of development. Both the setting up of the database system and the running operation are largely automated. During configuration, SAP DB automatically sets the core parameters in accordance with the existing system environment. During the definition of database objects such as tables and indexes, the database administrator works exclusively at the level of logical schemas: SAP DB automatically makes the assignment to the physical data structures in mass storage, and the database system also handles the growth of tables and indexes completely dynamically (same as Anon n.d.). Analysis on Innovation Life Cycle Model for SAP Usefulness Lifecycle Models are largely qualitative tools by which regularities in the progress of an object between its generation and degeneration are identified; these regularities are used to deduce prognoses for future evolutions (Bullinger 2008). The Innovation Life Cycle (Utterback and Abernathy 1975) helps in determining the pattern and the basis of competitive strategy can and probably can change for most firms as the industry evolves. At the first stage (fluid phase), the introduction of the technology innovation of SAP was described as it entered the market with its financial accounting software. The dominant design used was also established which is the SAP Database management system due to its stability and reliability, moving it from the transition phase into the specific phase. The pattern starting from the product innovation was also taken into account. SAP and probably other firms in general went forward into a process innovation. Another useful attribute of this model is that the strategies employed by firms during the models stages can be clearly identified and analysed. Limitation Although the Innovation Life Cycle Model helps in examining and analysing the nature of competition within the industry to identify opportunities and potential threats, it has also several limitations. For one, this model basically is just a generalisation. In actuality, life cycles do not always follow a standard pattern that a firm has to go through. In some cases, growth is so rapid that the embryonic is skipped altogether, while others industries fail to get past the embryonic stage. Industry growth can be revitalised after long periods of decline through innovation and social change. For example, the health boom brought the bicycle industry back to life after a long period of decline (Hill and Jones 2010). The time span of the stages can also vary from significantly from industry to industry. Some industries can stay in maturity almost indefinitely if their products become basic necessities of life, as in the case of the auto industry. Other industries skip the mature stage and go straight into decline, as in the case of the vacuum tube industry. Transistors replaced vacuum tubes as a major component in electronic products even though the vacuum tube industry was still in its growth stage. Still, other industries may go through several shakeouts before they enter full maturity, as what appears to be happening in the telecommunications industry (Hill and Jones 2010).Another criticism is that they overemphasize the importance of industry structure as a determinant of company performance and underemphasize the importance of variations or differences among companies within an industry or a strategic group (McGahan and Porter 1997). Prediction of Future Evolution The existence of a life-cycle pattern of industrial growth is a significant stylized fact for the purpose of constructing a theory of uneven development, but the question remains as to how a particular pattern is itself to be explained (Harris 1978).It is quite difficult to predict what will be the future evolution of SAP if the projection is solely based on the life cycle model. Markus and Tannis (2000) correctly identified that success is a dynamic concept, and could be very different depending on the phase of implementation. Apparently, with SAPs trend of rapid growth and profitable annual revenues, we could assume that they will continue to grow and develop more reliable products and expand their client base. However, this is just a probability based on the trend we see in this model. A lot of factors still needs to be considered to really determine what will happen for the future of SAP. Conclusion Product Innovation is a vital task for the modern corporation (Shavinina 2003).Using the Innovation Life Cycle Model, one can understand how a technology such as SAP goes through the following stages. This model also aids in observing some patterns similar to other firms. For instance, during the fluid phase, it can be observed that SAP focused on determining first what the market really needs and concentrated on product innovation for their customers. During that stage and throughout the transition, the focus also changed as SAP reacted to the economic climate, industrial factors, and competition by finding opportunities to create more products based on their dominant designs success in terms of stability and reliability. They also provided again customers with a variety of software solution strategies to help their businesses. During the specific phase, SAP still continued to expand its clientele and created advanced software solutions to cater to other business process needs. They focused on maintaining their strategy of never-ending support to their clients while offering innovations to their current product roster We can also notice that SAP as a large firm is active in a range of technologies broader than the products they make, this reflects the multi-technology nature of their products, and the knowledge required to coordinate in-house product innovation with innovation in related production systems and supply chains.(Dosi, Teece and Chytry 2005). SAP has yet to saturate the market since a lot of business entities in demand of their products and services. Hence, it can be assumed that SAP is on the maturity stage of the life cycle but still on the growth stage. Looking at their share value with an increasing trend, it can be inferred that they are heading to the right direction (see figure 5). What does this suggest about using the innovation life cycle model? It is simply providing us a snapshot of a specific firms progress. Like other models, it has its own limitations and usefulness, most importantly for analysts, managers, and researchers who need to analyse and formulate strategies using any model which complements a target firm in a specific industry. Process of Literature Search The research was started by searching for any relevant material, both print and online, on the topics Innovation Life Cycle, Technology, etc. The technology chosen was SAP Database for Business Management, since it is a relatively familiar topic and sources are abundant on both print and internet media. After gathering materials, the sources were read to determine their relevance to this research. The model used was the Innovation Life Cycle Model of Utterback and Abernathy to have a clear process of steps related to SAP from its fluid stage to the specific stage, and to analyse patterns and changes throughout the whole model.

Carl Sagans The Demon-Haunted World as Social Commentary Essay

Carl Sagan's The Demon-Haunted World as Social Commentary   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Carl Sagan sums up his view of the basic flaw of man in one phrase: "history reveals that we humans have a sad tendency to make the same mistakes again and again" (Sagan 424). Humans today have an understanding of the world around them that is vastly superior to that of their ancestors. In spite of this, a growing number of people perpetually fail to scrutinize to the degree necessary for the evolution of the self. According to Sagan, failure to think scientifically seems to be the reason why most people get caught up in investing all their faith in as-yet-unproved phenomena such as UFOs and even religion. By investigating globally relevant topics like these, Sagan attempts to ward off the demons of ignorance (Nickell 110). One of the strongest cases made by Sagan is the examination of professed UFO "abductees." According to the author, the biggest problem in cases of UFO abductions is the fact that proof is neither sought nor accepted by the subject. The faintest glimmer of the possibility of having been abducted almost always snowballs into the firmest belief that one indeed has been abducted. Even the strongest "evidence" often can be explained as something much more rational than it seems to the "abductee." For example, scarring attributed to alien experiments could quite possibly be due to any manner of unconscious self-mutilating acts. Sagan contends that even claims of seeing extraterrestrials can be attributed to the brain's possible retention, and subsequent projection, of dreams. People have occasionally recalled events of contact with alien life while under hypnosis. But Sagan contends that hypnosis is shoddy enough that it's recognized in courts... ...nd the Sun and takes a year to do it (324). These facts aren't mentioned in the hopes of instigating despair concerning the apparent lack of fundamental knowledge across America. Rather, Sagan's purpose is to emphasize the need for a scientifically literate public (324). In summary, Sagan relates that the mistake that man continuously makes is being led down stray courses. He believes that "[w]hat [many people] wish to be true, they believe is true" (325). A dangerous number of people fail to doubt and question both themselves and their surroundings. The acceptance of miscellaneous ideas without the demand of proof can only threaten to retard the progress of the human race. Work Cited Nickell, Joe. Looking for a Miracle. New York: Prometheus Books, 1998. Sagan, Carl. The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark. New York: Random, 1996.

World War III Essay example -- Creative Writing Essays

...I remember. It was all a blur. I remember sitting on the cold dusty floor; in the stadium, at my school. We all had no clue what was going on. The students, staff and facility staff, we were all jam-packed in the stadium. In front of all of us there was a tall dark man who had a skunk’s tail around his face, his shoulders were brawny, and His face was cold sober. The tall man thought that We were so naà ¯ve and absurd wearing, poppies on and kept sniggering every time he took a glance at us. What does what? Who is he? I also wanted to know why he is here those were the questions that were circling in my mind. The tall dark man looked very intimidating he looked as hard as a brick. He had three men on each side of him, looking like bowling pins. He told us that his name he said his name was Dedrick, ruler of people, he said this with gratification. The silence in the room broke. The whalley rangers erupted with hilarity. His face turned red with a slow burn â€Å"SILENCE!† he compelled. All of a sudden the clock struck eleven o’clock. He declared â€Å"I Dedrick Hitler, Hitler’s son! When I saw the villainous spiteful look of his face I started to put all the puzzle pieces together. I knew what was going on. Words were racing through my mind. If you ever hear the word Hitler’s son on Remembrance Day at eleven o’clock you just know y ou’re going to be in a rat' nest. I slowly raised my hand terrified of what was going to happen. All eyes were focused on. Dedrick said â€Å"yes zilltle girl† in a strong, powerful, and stentorian. German accent â€Å"vat do you vant?† I softly then said to him in a calm voice â€Å"what is your plan, what do you want at this school?† He came closer. He whispers in my ear with his melting voice â€Å"my plan? I felt so rotten m... ... stand the heat. I did not vote for you so that, you can encourage kids to fight. Sleeping on the warm bloody red floor made me feel queasy, at the beginning but Haley who is only 8 told us to stay strong. Haley is a better leader than you will ever be. I cannot breathe in the nasty powdery plague. The smell is awful like fish bathing in manure. I shouldn’t have voted for you even. Jacob who is 12 has more leadership in his finger than you have in you body, if I come out alive I’m not voting for you again. Yours sincerely Solace I stormed out the tent with fury. The winds spoke with exhaust. The wind ran through my hair, as I was preparing to battle. I climbed to the top of the hill, feeling the cold-heat running past my face. I waited for the venomous against, but before I went down, I turned around there he was dedrick with a glimmer in his eye.

Fun Should be the Focus of Youth Sports :: Argumentative Persuasive Essay Examples

  Ã‚   Over the last two decades the growth of youth sports has reflected the popularity of professional sports in our society. To a foreign observer of the American culture we appear to be a sport's obsessed society. Sporting events and news are available to us twenty-four hours a day on television and radio; sports are an enormous industry. In 1995 it was determined that the sporting industry generated 85 billion dollars worth of business. It is now estimated that by the year 2005 the sporting industry will be worth more than 150 billion dollars, making one of the top ten industries in the U.S. (Murphy 32). The outstanding popularity of the sports industry has had a profound affect on youth sport's organizations. Recent surveys place the number of children participating in various team sports at around 20 million. However, critics estimate that as many as 73 percent quit sports by age thirteen. The majority of children drop out by middle school age because sports are no longer fun for them. There are several contributing factors to this phenomenon, parents and coaches putting excessive pressure on children, over competitiveness, anxiety, and simple loss of interest.    Children join sports at a young age, and it is usually the parent who decides what sport the child will play. Parents are often very involved in their child's sport. The parents buy the team trophies, uniforms, and equipment and shuttle their child to and from games and practices. Most children enjoy this time they spend with their family and friends. There is little emphasis placed on competition and children all have an equal chance to participate. They are able to "play" with their friends outside the school environment and simply have fun, which in turn keeps children interested and involved in their sport.    As children get older they ascend to a higher level in their sport, for instance, from T- ball, to little league. During this time pressure to succeed starts to rise. Parents and coaches often become more involved with the game than with their children, attention starts to focus to the more "talented" players on the team, and competition and "who wins" takes precedence over having fun. In his book The Cheers and the Tears, sport's psychologist Shane Murphy Ph.D., claims that "One way in which many traditional youth sport programs fail to meet the needs of children is by introducing too much competition too early.

Revenue Recognition Convergence

Holzmann, Oscar J. â€Å"Revenue recognition convergence: The contract-based model. † Journal Of Corporate Accounting & Finance (Wiley) 22, no. 6 (2011): 87-92. The article â€Å"Revenue Recognition Convergence: The Contract-Based Model† is all about revenue recognition. It begins by explaining the conceptual background information to give you an overview of what revenue recognition is both in the US and internationally. Part of this section also discusses what problems have been found with revenue recognition. Because of these problems, the international and US boards have proposed an adoption of the â€Å"contract-based revenue recognition model. This standard would apply to all contacts between companies and their customers, with some exceptions. There are five steps to this revenue recognition model. These steps are discussed individually within the article. The steps are (1) identify the contract, (2) identify the performance obligation(s), (3) determine the trans action price, (4) allocate the transaction price to separate performance obligations, and (5) recognize revenue. After the descriptions of each step, the article goes on to explain onerous performance obligations, contract cost, presentation, and disclosure.Each of these are important topics and will be on the re-exposure of the exposure draft in the coming years. The book for this class begins talking about revenue recognition in chapter five on page 197. The section of the book that more closely relates to this article starts on pages 203 and its called IASB-FASB Revenue Recognition Project. This explains a little about the joint exposure draft from the IASB and FASB. Also, like the article it discusses the five steps in recognizing revenue. These steps are listed in the above paragraph.It explains each of the steps just enough to understand what it is without confusing you. The section finishes by giving a little more information on the exposure draft. I was in the class group th at did our presentation over revenue recognition, so a lot of this information looked very familiar. It is good to see the same information in different reliable sources. Overall I find this article to be very informative and easy to read and understand. If I didn’t do the group project over the same topic, I would have still been able to understand and comprehend the information in the article.

It’s Better to Have Loved Then Lost Than Never Love at All Essay

Alfred, Lord Tennyson once said â€Å"Tis better to have loved and lost than never to have loved at all†, and I agree. I think being in love is a part of the journey of life and a very good experience to have, one would regret for not having go through that. Being in love also makes you a better person, happier and more passion about life and it’s one of the best feelings anyone can have. Although losing costs a lot of pain, one can also learn from that and get something out of it at the end of relationships and learn upon that. One only gets one chance at life so it should be a life where one can experience every part of the journey. Love is a huge part of that experience. If one never loved then they will be missing one of the biggest journeys of life and would later in their life regret it. Also, if one never experience love one wouldn’t know what that is, so they can’t decide for themselves if it was worth it for them or not. The main character in â€Å"the long walk to forever†, Newt, is an example of someone who tries very hard to experience this journey. When he first showed up, he wasn’t sure that it would turned out how he wanted, but despite that fact he still told Catharine his feelings towards her. He went and talked to her because he doesn’t want to regret for not taking any action of what could be one of the best things in his life. In the end, he discovered that she loved him too, a risk worth taking. Being in love changes the way one see things in the world. It makes everything seem nicer, happier and better. Being in love will also makes you want to be a better person, for the happiness they receive they would also try to express it to others as well. One would also do things harder, be more passionate and more energized in everything they do. In the movie Benjamin button, after Daisy broke her leg and wouldn’t be able to dance, she was crushed. However, when later she and Benjamin fell in love with each other, her ways of seeing life changed dramatically. They were always happy when they were together, and love changed her life and helped Daisy to quickly recover mentally from her accident. Losing someone causes a lot of pain, but there are things that can be learned from it. At the end of each relationship one can learn from their mistakes and change to the better. True love is something that can stand the test of time and even if it was lost there will still happy memories left in your heart. The story â€Å"The Skating Party† shows this perfectly. Although the uncle, Nathan Singleton was engaged with Eunice Lathem, he actually loved her sister Delia Sykes. So when he had to make the choice to save only one of them he chose the one he really loved, Delia Sykes. In the end after Delia moved away with her husband he wasn’t all that sad. From this experience, he learned who he really loved and figured out that he couldn’t change the fact, so he never got married. He remained alone but felt he had done what his heart commanded. It’s better to love then lose than never love at all. Life is a journey, and love is a big part of it. Being in love change the ways one sees things to be even better and it is one of the best feelings anyone can experience. Even at the end of a relationship there are things that can be learned that would help one to improve. So they can learn from that, improve themselves and be even happier with life. One only gets one chance of life so it should be a life where one experienced every part of the journey, or it will be something they will look back upon and regret for not doing so.